Explanation

Callow means ناتجربہ کار

Inexperienced means ناتجربہ کار

Explanation

The general formula for cycloalkanes is CₙH₂ₙ, which matches C₆H₁₂.

A common example is cyclohexane.

Explanation

Explanation

Explanation

Explanation

1. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
   If $f$ is continuous on $[a,b]$ and $F$ is any antiderivative of $f$ on $[a,b]$, then:

   $${<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">\int </font></b>}_{\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">a</font></b>}}^{\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">b</font></b>}}\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">f</font></b>}<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">(</font></b>\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">x</font></b>}<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">)</font></b>\text{<b><font color="\#0000ff">\hspace{0.17em}</font></b>}\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">d</font></b>}\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">x</font></b>}<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">=</font></b>\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">F</font></b>}<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">(</font></b>\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">b</font></b>}<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">)</font></b><b><font\; color="\#0000ff">-</font></b>\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">F</font></b>}<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">(</font></b>\mathrm{<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">a</font></b>}<b><font\; color="\#0000ff">)</font></b>$$

Explanation

Common equity includes common stock and retained earnings, representing shareholders’ ownership.

It reflects the residual interest in the assets after deducting liabilities.

Explanation

Partisan means اہل فریق ۔ شریک

Neutral means غیر جانبدار

Explanation

Net profit margin = Net profit ÷ Total revenue × 100.

It shows how efficiently a company converts revenue into actual profit.

Explanation

Obfuscate means دھندلا

Blur means دھندلا